Leading from the middle contrasts with top-down leadership and bottom-up leadership (Hargreaves & Shirley, 2019). De Nobile (2019) agreed, asserting middle leaders have distinctly unique roles from senior leaders. Scholars described middle managers as “stuck in the middle” of the organizational hierarchy, required to balance senior management demands with followers’ realities (Way et al., 2018). Middle managers frequently experience shifting demands and organizational turbulence in the middle of the organizational hierarchy (Alvesson & Jonsson, 2018). Middle managers’ intermediate power level characterizes their role, such as when senior leaders give strategic direction from above and middle managers must implement the strategy through the ranks below (Nghe et al., 2020). Middle managers’ constrained organizational structure results in a sense of asymmetric power characterized by multi-relational exchanges and power differentials leaders in the ranks above do not experience (Jaser, 2020). Berraies (2020) argued middle leaders occupy a position intersecting with the vertical and horizontal flow of the information, giving them a unique view of both strategic and operational viewpoints. Iasbech and Lavarda (2018) agreed, stating middle leaders’ unique position in the hierarchy makes them critical integrators and negotiators between upper management and the workforce. Sobratee and Bodhanya (2018) called out a similar dynamic, noting middle leaders serve as unique “lynchpins” in the strategy-making process.
Middle Managers are Crucial Leadership Figures in the Organizational Hierarchy
Middle managers’ roles are changing and becoming increasingly more complex (Chilvers et al., 2018). According to De Nobile (2018), scholars and practitioners have shifted terminology from ‘middle managers’ to ‘middle leaders’ to reflect how the responsibilities and expectations of these roles have evolved from an administrative task orientation to a dynamic and strategic people orientation. Middle managers have line of sight to the organization’s future via their relationship with upper management, and a detailed understanding of organizational realities via their relationship with the operating core, making them a leadership asset for implementing strategic change (Kieran et al., 2020). Middle managers also exert significant leadership influence on organizational climate because their subordinates look to them for how to think, behave, and perform (Paetzel et al., 2019). When middle managers act as leaders, middle managers drive the organization’s operating engine and become the most important level of leadership in the organization (Pavlopoulos, 2020).
Middle Managers Require Leadership Competencies Relative to their Position in the Organizational Hierarchy
Middle leader role responsibilities are highly contextualized to their position in the middle of the organizational hierarchy such that middle managers require unique leadership competencies to reflect the complexities of the context (Grootenboer et al., 2019; Li et al., 2018; Lipscombe et al., 2020). According to De Nobile (2018), any model of middle leadership should include competencies related to both leadership and management to reflect the duality of role expectations for middle leaders. Middle managers require leadership competencies ranging from strategic to interpersonal, including thinking and acting strategically; demonstrating strong character (e.g., trustworthiness and integrity); building a positive team culture and encouraging positive relationships between team members; resourcing teams appropriately and distributing workload among team members equitably; cultivating open communication and shared decision-making (Thornton et al., 2018). Ong and Yaqiong (2018) also found core leadership competencies needed for middle managers to maximize their employees’ performance include job proficiency (i.e., professional expertise), employee engagement, resource management, results-orientation, teamwork, innovation, change management, and people management. Additional competencies middle managers require to exhibit effective middle leadership include followership (Alegbeleye & Kaufman, 2020; Jaser, 2020); communication (Alvesson & Jonsson, 2018; Pavlopoulos, 2020; Thornton et al., 2018); self-awareness (Kieran et al., 2020; Thornton et al., 2018); team building (Lleo et al., 2020); personal character (e.g., integrity, transparency, trustworthiness, courage, respect, leading by example, inclusion, sincerity, positivity) (Lleo et al., 2020; Ong & Yaqiong, 2018; Thornton et al., 2018); strategic and analytical ability (Kieran et al., 2020; Thornton et al., 2018); strategic implementation (Alamsjah, 2020; Way et al., 2018); change leadership (Kieran et al., 2020; Thornton et al., 2018; Way et al., 2018); sensemaking; (Kieran et al., 2020); and management skills (Alvesson & Jonsson, 2018).
Middle Managers’ Leadership Influences Employee Performance
Numerous researchers demonstrated a significant relationship between middle managers’ leadership and employee performance (Alamsjah, 2020; Alvesson & Jonsson, 2018; Diskiene et al., 2019; Hoang et al., 2020; Jaser, 2020; Kieran et al., 2020; Larsson et al., 2020; Lleo et al., 2020; Paetzel et al., 2019; Way et al., 2018). Hoang et al. (2020) asserted middle managers’ leadership influences employee attitudes, engagement, productivity, and satisfaction, all of which increase employee performance. Diskiene et al. (2019) argued the number one influence on employee performance is feelings about one’s manager, including the level of trust, respect, and commitment toward their manager, all of which reflect the leadership competencies the manager possesses. Ong and Yaqiong (2018) also suggested organizations that develop leadership competencies in middle managers achieve increased employee performance and improved outcomes.
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